Cody Cunningham

COMM 5080

9/21/02

State of the Field Report

1. Research Area: communication education

2. Research questions:

A large percentage of research in the field of communication education revolves around the study of effective communication in educational environments. Specifically, researchers often focus on communication between instructor and learner and influencing factors surrounding these relationships. Katz (1972) examined the developmental stages of preschool teachers and implications regarding teaching. Wentzel (1999) studied social-motivational processes and interpersonal relationships in order to understand student motivation at school. Entwisle and Alexander (1988) looked at factors that affected achievement test scores by Black and White first graders. A vast number of studies have been performed with the goal of revealing influencing factors within educational settings and the classroom.

Many researchers have studied motivation and its effect on communication in the classroom. Boekaerts (1995) looked at self-regulated learning and how to draw connections between metacognitive and metamotivation theories. Dweck (1986) examined the motivational processes that affect learning. Guthrie and Wigfield (1999) took a more applied angle of research and studied how motivation relates to the science of reading. Combining a variety of influencing factors is also common practice among researchers in communication education as seen in Pintrich, Anderman, and Klobucar’s (1994) study of differences in motivation and cognition in students with disabilities. Combining influencing factors often reveals more detailed and rich data with which to work.

Learning and culture have been studied in great depth. Good (1970) studied whether culture had an influence on the pupils that teachers call on in the classroom. Sanders and Wiseman (1990) looked at the effects of verbal and nonverbal teacher immediacy on cognitive, affective, and behavioral learning of multicultural students. Tuyay, Jennings, and Dixon (1995) examined knowledge construction in a bilingual third-grade classroom. Clark (1963) studied educational stimulation factors in children of different race.

Smith (1965) investigated the interpersonal relationships in the classroom based on socioeconomic status of sixth-grade boys. Baker, Scher, and Mackler (1997) took a more broad approach and examined several home and family influences on performance and on motivation for reading. Heath (1982) studied how reading to children at home affects narrative skills both at home and at school. Vast numbers of studies have examined the extent to which home and family influences student achievement in the classroom.

Witt and Wheeless (2001) studied teacher communication activities and there relevance to student motivation. Verbal and nonverbal communication has been studied in great depth with respect to instructor/student relationships and student achievement in educational settings. Rubin, Rubin, and Jordan (1997) analyzed the effects of different types of instruction on communication apprehension and communication competence. Silberman (1969) also researched verbal and nonverbal influences by looking at the behavioral expression of teachers’ attitudes towards students.

Labeling is a topic often studied in the field of communication education. Schrank (1968) studied the labeling effect of grouping students based on ability. Marshall and Weinstein (1984) sought to reveal the impact on classrooms where students perceived differential treatment by teachers. Rosenthal (1974) examined the social psychology of the self-fulfilling prophecy. Wineburg (1987) went a step further and looked at cases of actual self-fulfillment of the

self-fulfilling prophecy. Opportunities for researching communication education and factors influencing teacher and student performance are endless.

3. Methodology

When studying communication education researchers employ a variety of methods, including qualitative, quantitative, and a combination of the two. Observation of instructors and students remains a primary resource in gathering data. Dweck (1986) built on the data accumulated from observation by creating several research-based models of motivational processes. Often communication education researchers will use qualitative research based on observation and compare this to an exhaustive review of literature (Baker, Scher, & Mackler, 1997; Wentzel, 1999; Katz, 1972).

Heath (1982) used similar observation along with ethnographic study and performed a comparative study of patterns of language for his study on narrative skills both at home and school. Tuyay, Jennings, and Dixon (1995) also looked at patterns except used both oral and written discourse as indicators in their study of knowledge construction.

Another commonly used tool for gathering information is the survey or questionnaire. This can lead to a variety of qualitative and quantitative evaluations. Pintrich, Anderman, and Klobucar (1994) surveyed three clusters of men and women using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children and the Woodcock-Johnson achievement test. Surveys become particularly helpful when studying a large number of classrooms or number of students (Guthrie & Wigfield, 1999; Marshall & Weinstein, 1984; Rubin, Rubin, & Jordan, 1997; Sanders & Wiseman, 1990).

Witt and Wheeless (2001) utilize experimental manipulation to a great extent. This quantitative analysis lends itself to a more comprehensive retrieval of empirical data and can increase the richness of the study. Boekaerts (1995) uses this quantitative method along with longitudinal observation to acquire a breadth of information for his analysis of metacognitive and metamotivation theories.

A majority of the scholars used to some degree quantitative data, primarily through observing patterns or through surveys. More recent research reveals that a combination of both qualitative and quantitative research methods is the choice for many researchers of communication education.

References

Clark, K. (1963). Educational stimulation of racially disadvantaged children. In A. H. Passow (Ed.), Education in depressed areas (pp.142-162). New York: Teachers College Press.

Baker, L., Scher, D., & Mackler, K. (1997). Home and family influences on motivations for reading. Educational Psychologist, 32, 69-82.

Boekaerts, M. (1995). Self-regulated learning: Bridging the gap between metacognitive and metamotivation theories. Educational Psychologist, 30, 195-200.

Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 1040-1048.

Entwisle, D., & Alexander, K. (1988). Factors affecting achievement test scores and marks received by Black and White first graders. Elementary School Journal, 88, 449-471.

Good, T. (1970). Which pupils do teachers call on? Elementary School Journal, 70, 190-198.

Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (1999). How motivation fits into a science of reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 199-205.

Heath, S. B. (1982). What no bedtime story means: Narrative skills at home and school. Language in Society, 11, 49-76.

Katz, L. (1972). Developmental stages of preschool teachers. Elementary School Journal, 73, 50-54.

Marshall, H., & Weinstein, R. (1984, April). Classrooms where students perceive high and low amounts of differential teacher treatment. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Pintrich, P. R., Anderman, E. M., & Klobucar, C. (1994). Intraindividual differences in motivation and cognition in students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27, 360-370.

Rosenthal, R. (1974). On the social psychology of the self-fulfilling prophecy: Further evidence for Pymalion effects and their mediating mechanisms. New York: MSS Modular Publications.

Rubin, R., Rubin, A., & Jordan, F. (1997). Effects of instruction on communication apprehension and communication competence. Communication Education, 46, 104-114.

Sanders, A., & Wiseman, L. (1990). The effects of verbal and nonverbal teacher immediacy on perceived cognitive, affective, and behavioral learning in the multicultural classroom. Communication Education, 39, 341-353.

Schrank, W. (1968). The labeling effect of ability grouping. Journal of Educational Research, 62, 51-52.

Silberman, M. (1969). Behavioral expression of teachers’ attitudes toward elementary school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 60, 402-407.

Smith, M. (1965). Interpersonal relationships in the classroom based on the expected socio economic status of sixth-grade boys. Teachers College Journal, 36, 200-206.

Tuyay, S., Jennings, L., & Dixon, C. (1995). Classroom discourse and opportunities to learn: An ethnographic study of knowledge construction in a bilingual third-grade classroom. Discourse Processes. 19, 75-110.

Wineburg, S. S. (1987). The self-fulfillment of the self-fulfilling prophecy. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 28-37.

Witt, P. L., & Wheeless, L. R. (2001). An experimental study of teachers’ verbal and nonverbal immediacy and students’ affective and cognitive learning. Communication Education, 50, 327-342.